Bennett's New Latin Grammar is a book, now in the public domain, written by the famous Charles E. Bennett. I have made this version available online. Of course there may be errors, so use at your own risk.
254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as, -
vōs vidētis, you see;
pater fīliōs īnstituit, the father trains his sons.
2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as, -
sēditiō repressa est, the mutiny was checked.
3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as, -
Tarquiniī māterna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native country on his mother's side;
nōn omnis error stultitia est dīcenda, not every error is to be called folly.
a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as, -
Coriolī, oppidum Volscōrum, captum est, Corioli, a town of the Volsci, was captured.
4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus: -
a) In Number; as, -
multitūdō hominum convēnerant, a crowd of men had gathered.
b) In Gender; as, -
duo mīlia crucibus adfīxī sunt, two thousand (men) were crucified.
255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural; as, -
pater et fīlius mortuī sunt, the father and son died.
2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz., -
a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as, -
mortuus est pater et fīlius;
pater mortuus est et fīlius.
b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel; neque ... neque; as, -
neque pater neque fīlius mortuus est, neither father nor son died.
3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used; as, -
temeritās ignōrātiōque vitiōsa est, rashness and ignorance are bad.
a. This is regularly the case in senātus populusque Rōmānus.
4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the third; as, -
sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.
5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.
256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as, -
ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, I shall not allow him to defend himself.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something in his own interest; as, -
vēlātus tempora, having veiled his temples.
a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as, -
tunicā indūcitur artūs, he covers his limbs with a tunic.
3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as, -
curritur, people run (lit. it is run);
ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. it was come).
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions: -
a) The period of time to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or Future.
b) The kind of action: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table: -
| KIND OF ACTION. | PERIOD OF TIME. | ||
| PRESENT. | PAST. | FUTURE. | |
| UNDEFINED |
Present: scrībō, I write. |
Historical Perfect: scrīpsī, I wrote. |
Future: scrībam, I shall write. |
| GOING ON. |
Present: scrībō, I am writing. |
Imperfect: scrībēbam, I was writing. |
Future: scrībam, I shall be writing. |
| COMPLETED. |
Present Perfect: scrīpsī, I have written. |
Pluperfect: scrīpseram, I had written. |
Future Perfect: scrīpserō, I shall have written. |
2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).
258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).
The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.
The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.
259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities: -
1. It is used to denote a general truth, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as, -
virtūs conciliat amīcitiās et cōnservat, virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them (i.e. always does so).
2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as, -
dum vītant vitia, in contrāria currunt, while they try to avoid (vītant) vices, they rush into opposite ones.
3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action ('Historical Present'); as, -
Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, Caesar demanded a large number of hostages (lit. demands).
4. In combination with jam, jam diū, jam prīdem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present; as, -
jam prīdem cupiō tē vīsere, I have long been desiring to visit you (i.e. I desire and have long desired).
260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time; as, -
librum legēbam, I was reading a book.
a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense of description (as opposed to mere narration).
2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action; as, -
lēgātōs interrogābat, he kept asking the envoys;
C. Duīlium vidēbam puer, as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius.
3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect') or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as, -
hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnītiōnēs prōgredī prohibēbant, the enemy tried to prevent (prohibēbant) our men from advancing within the fortifications ('Conative');
ad proelium sē expediēbant, they were beginning to get ready for battle ('Inceptive').
4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diū, jam dūdum, etc., is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time; as, -
domicilium Rōmae multōs jam annōs habēbat, he had had his residence at Rome for many years (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).
261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: 'If he comes, I shall be glad,' where we really mean: 'If he shall come,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.
2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dīcēs, say!
262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as, -
nōvī, cognōvī, I know (lit. I have become acquainted with);
cōnsuēvī, I am wont (lit. I have become accustomed).
B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of description); as, -
Rēgulus in senātum vēnit, mandāta exposuit, reddī captivōs negāvit esse ūtile, Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned.
1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect').
263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as, -
Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.
a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A), the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as, -
nōveram, I knew.
264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus: -
scrībam epistulam, cum redieris, I will write the letter when you have returned (lit. when you shall have returned).
a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.
b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) the Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as, -
nōverō, I shall know.
265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as, -
nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, neque enim novī quidquam audieram et ad tuās omnēs epistulās jam rescrīpseram, I have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
266. A. In Independent sentences. See §§ 272-280.
B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called
267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.
2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus: -
PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE, -
videō quid faciās, I see what you are doing.
vidēbō quid faciās, I shall see what you are doing.
vīderō quid faciās, I shall have seen what you are doing.
videō quid fēcerīs, I see what you have done.
vidēbō quid fēcerīs, I shall see what you have done.
vīderō quid fēcerīs, I shall have seen what you have done.
HISTORICAL SEQUENCE, -
vidēbam quid facerēs, I saw what you were doing.
vīdī quid facerēs, I saw what you were doing.
vīderam quid facerēs, I had seen what you were doing.
vidēbam quid fēcissēs, I saw what you had done.
vīdī quid fēcissēs, I saw what you had done.
vīderam quid fēcissēs, I had seen what you had done.
3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.
268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as, -
dēmōnstrāvī quārē ad causam accēderem, I have shown why I took the case (lit. I showed why, etc.).
2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as, -
videor ostendisse quālēs deī essent, I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative, ostendī, I showed).
3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus: -
Sulla suōs hortātur ut fortī animō sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted;
Gallōs hortātur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms.
4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as, -
honestum tāle est ut, vel sī ignōrārent id hominēs, suā tamen pulchritūdine laudabīle esset, virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness.
5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as, -
sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem tū quidem eōrum quī vīverent exciperēs, if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those who live.
6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus: -
rēx tantum mōtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem jūdicārit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy.
This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, jūdicārit in the above example corresponds to adjūdicāvit, he adjudged. To denote a result as something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.
7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus:
a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense; as, -
Verrēs Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituī nōn possit, Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct statement: nōn potest restitui);
ārdēbat Hortēnsius dīcendī cupiditāte sīc, ut in nūllō flagrantius studium vīderim, Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement: in nūllō vīdī, I have seen in no one).
NOTE. - This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.
b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used historically; as, -
nesciō quid causae fuerit cūr nūllās ad mē litterās darēs, I do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter.
Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive.
269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows: -
1.
a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses.
b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.
This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus: -
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperāret, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should order;
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāverit, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāvisset, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered.
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus: -
timeō nē veniat, I am afraid he will come;
Caesar exspectābat quid cōnsilī hostēs caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.
3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -ūrus sim and -ūrus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after nōn dubitō quīn; as, -
nōn dubitō quīn pater ventūrus sit, I do not doubt that my father will come;
nōn dubitābam quīn pater ventūrus esset, I did not doubt that my father would come.
4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevī, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as, -
nōn dubitō quīn tē mox hūjus reī paeniteat, I do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing;
nōn dubitābam quīn haec rēs brevī cōnficerētur, I did not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus: -
a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends; as, -
vidētur honōrēs adsequī, he seems to be gaining honors;
vidēbātur honōrēs adsequī, he seemed to be gaining honors.
b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends; as, -
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtus esse, he seems to have gained honors;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtus esse, he seemed to have gained honors.
c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends; as, -
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, he seems to be about to gain honors;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, he seemed to be about to gain honors.
2. Where the English says 'ought to have done,' 'might have done,' etc., the Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as, -
dēbuit dīcere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say);
opōrtuit venīre, he ought to have come;
potuit vidēre, he might have seen.
a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as, -
hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been done.
3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futūrum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as, -
spērō fore ut tē paeniteat levitātis, I hope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent);
spērō futūrum esse ut hostēs arceantur, I hope that the enemy will be kept off.
a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as, -
spērō fore ut hostēs vincantur, I hope the enemy will be conquered.
4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as, -
spērō epistulam scrīptam fore, I hope the letter will have been written;
dīcō mē satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have gained enough.