Bennett's New Latin Grammar is a book, now in the public domain, written by the famous Charles E. Bennett. I have made this version available online. Of course there may be errors, so use at your own risk.
MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.
1. Note the following idiomatic uses: -
a) With possum; as, -
possum multa dīcere, I might say much;
poteram multa dīcere, I might have said much (§ 270, 2).
b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, ūtilius est, and some others; as, -
longum est ea dīcere, it would be tedious to tell that;
difficile est omnia persequī, it would be difficult to enumerate everything.
272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something -
1. As willed - Volitive Subjunctive;
2. As desired - Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible - Potential Subjunctive.
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties: -
A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhortation. This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nē. Thus: -
eāmus, let us go;
amēmus patriam, let us love our country;
nē dēspērēmus, let us not despair.
B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used -
1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as, -
dīcat, let him tell;
dīcant, let them tell;
quārē sēcēdant improbī, wherefore let the wicked depart!
2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as, -
istō bonō ūtāre, use that advantage;
modestē vīvās, live temperately.
C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with nē, to express a prohibition. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as, -
nē repugnētis, do not resist!
tū vērō istam nē relīquerīs, don't leave her!
impiī nē plācāre audeant deōs, let not the impious dare to appease the gods!
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is by the use of nōlī (nōlīte) with a following infinitive, or by cavē or cavē nē with the Subjunctive; as, -
nōlī hōc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do)!
nōlīte mentīrī, do not lie!
cavē ignōscās, cavē tē misereat, do not forgive, do not pity!
cavē nē haec faciās, do not do this (lit. take care lest you do)!
D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is nōn. Thus: -
quid faciam, what shall I do?
ego redeam, I go back!
huic cēdāmus! hūjus condiciōnēs audiāmus! are we to bow to him! are we to listen to his terms!
quid facerem, what was I to do?
hunc ego nōn dīligam, should I not cherish this man?
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in character, and do not expect an answer.
E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is nē. Thus: -
sit hōc vērum, I grant that this is true (lit. let this be true);
nē sint in senectūte vīrēs, I grant there is not strength in old age;
fuerit malus cīvis aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit, I grant that he was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly nē.
1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible.
dī istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that!
falsus utinam vātēs sim, oh that I may be a false prophet!
nē veniant, may they not come!
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as, -
utinam istud ex animō dīcerēs, would that you were saying that in earnest (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);
Pēlīdēs utinam vītāsset Apollinis arcūs, would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo;
utinam nē nātus essem, would that I had not been born.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility. The negative is nōn. The following uses are to be noted: -
1. The 'May' Potential. - The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere possibility (English auxiliary may). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus: -
dīcat aliquis, some one may say;
dīxerit aliquis, some one may say.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential. - The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should, would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus: -
fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, one would more quickly find Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make the trial);
crēdiderim, I should believe.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, mālim, nōlim, as softened forms of statement for volō, mālō, nōlō. Thus: -
velim mihi ignōscās, I wish you would forgive me;
nōlim putēs mē jocārī, I don't want you to think I'm joking.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303); as, -
diēs dēficiat, sī cōner ēnumerāre causās, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons.
3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential. - In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with indefinite force; § 356, 3) of a few verbs of perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like; as, -
videās, cernās, one can see, one can perceive;
crēderēs, one could believe;
vidērēs, cernerēs, one could see, perceive;
putārēs, one could imagine.
4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nōllem, māllem; as, -
vellem id quidem, I should wish that (i.e. were I bold enough).
281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions and entreaties (negative nē), as, -
ēgredere ex urbe, depart from the city;
mihi ignōsce, pardon me;
valē, farewell.
1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed -
a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences; as, -
rem vōbīs prōpōnam; vōs eam penditōte, I will lay the matter before you; do you (then) consider it;
sī bene disputābit, tribuitō litterīs Graecis, if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature.
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as, -
cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, the consuls shall have supreme power;
hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō, no one shall bury a dead body in the city;
amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs legibus et condiciōnibus estō, let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions;
quārtae estō partis Mārcus hērēs, let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of the property);
ignōscitō saepe alterī, numquam tibi, forgive your neighbor often, yourself never.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, b.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quīn (why not?) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as, -
quīn abīs, go away! (lit. why don't you go away?);
quīn vōcem continētis, keep still! (lit. why don't you stop your voices?);
quīn equōs cōnscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not mount our horses?)
MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utī), quō (that, in order that), nē (in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive, as, -
edimus ut vīvāmus, we eat that we may live;
adjūtā mē quō hōc fīat facilius, help me, in order that this may be done more easily;
portās clausit, nē quam oppidānī injūriam acciperent, he closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury.
a. Quō, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as, -
haec faciunt quō Chremētem absterreant, they are doing this in order to frighten Chremes.
b. Ut nē is sometimes found instead of nē. Thus: -
ut nē quid neglegenter agāmus, in order that we may not do anything carelessly.
c. Ut nōn (not nē) is used where the negation belongs to some single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus: -
ut nōn ējectus ad aliēnōs, sed invītātus ad tuōs videāre, that you may seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends.
d. To say 'and that not' or 'or that not,' the Latin regularly uses nēve (neu); as, -
ut eārum rērum vīs minuerētur, neu pontī nocērent, that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge;
profūgit, nē caperētur nēve interficerētur, he fled, that he might not be captured or killed.
e. But neque (for nēve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by nē.
f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun: as, -
hāc causā, ut pācem habērent, on this account, that they might have peace.
2. A Relative Pronoun (quī) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quō) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as, -
Helvētiī lēgātōs mittunt, quī dīcerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. who should say);
haec habuī, dē senectūte quae dīcerem, I had these things to say about old age;
nōn habēbant quō sē reciperent, they had no place to which to flee (lit. whither they might flee).
a. Quī in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut ibi; unde to ut inde; quō to ut eō.
3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idōneus; as, -
idōneus fuit nēmō quem imitārēre, there was no one suitable for you to imitate (cf. nēmō fuit quem imitārēre, there was no one for you to imitate);
dignus est quī aliquandō imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.
4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as, -
ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this, (I will say that) we departed.
283. 1. A relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the Subjunctive; as, -
multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things which sharpen the wits.
Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take the Indicative; as, -
Catō, senex jūcundus, quī Sapiēns appellātus est, Cato, a delightful old man, who was called 'The Wise.'
The Clause of Characteristic implies 'a person of the sort that does something'; the Indicative relative clause implies 'a particular person who does something.'
2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est quī; sunt quī; nēmō est quī; nūllus est quī; ūnus est quī; sōlus est quī; quis est quī; is quī; etc. Thus: -
sunt quī dīcant, there are (some) who say;
nēmō est quī nesciat, there is nobody who is ignorant;
sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow;
quae cīvitās est quae nōn ēvertī possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown?
nōn is sum quī improbōs laudem, I am not the sort of man that praises the wicked.
a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteristic is used after comparatives; as, -
nōn longius hostēs aberant quam quō tēlum adigī posset, the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them (lit. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast).
3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause (since) or opposition (although). Thus: -
a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quīppe, utpote; as, -
ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum praecōnem invēnerīs, O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor;
ut quī optimō jūre eam prōvinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right.
b) Opposition: -
egomet quī sērō Graecās litterās attigissem, tamen complūrēs diēs Athēnīs commorātus sum, I, although I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens.
4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quīn = quī (quae, quod) nōn; as, -
nēmō est quīn saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often heard;
nēmō fuit mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded.
5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:
quod sciam, so far as I know; quem (quam, quod), audierim, so far as I have heard.
284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, so that), negative ut nōn (so that not), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, tālis, tot, is (= tālis), tam, ita, sīc, adeō, or some similar word. Thus: -
quis tam dēmēns est ut suā voluntāte maereat, who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition?
Siciliam ita vāstāvit ut restituī in antīquum statum nōn possit, he so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition;
mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī prohibēre possent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them;
nōn is es ut tē pudor umquam ā turpitūdine āvocārit, you are not so constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness.
2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, quī (= ut is), quō (= ut eō), etc.; as, -
nēmō est tam senex quī sē annum nōn putet posse vīvere, nobody is so old as not to think he can live a year;
habētis eum cōnsulem quī pārēre vestrīs dēcrētīs nōn dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.
a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.
3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quīn = ut nōn; as, -
nihil tam difficile est quīn quaerendō invēstīgārī possit, nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching;
nēmō est tam fortis quīn reī novitāte perturbētur, no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence.
4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives; as, -
urbs erat mūnītior quam ut prīmō impetū capī posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. more strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc.).
285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles: -
1. Quod, quia, quoniam.
2. Cum.
3. Quandō.
286. The use of moods is as follows: -
1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the writer or speaker; they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed as that of another. Thus: -
Parthōs timeō quod diffīdō cōpiīs nostrīs, I fear the Parthians, because I distrust our troops.
Themistoclēs, quia nōn tūtus erat, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, Themistocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra.
neque mē vīxisse paenitet, quoniam bene vīxī, I do not regret having lived, since I have lived well.
Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet juventūtem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.)
Haeduī Caesarī grātiās ēgērunt quod sē perīculō līberāvisset, the Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Haedui.)
quoniam Miltiadēs dīcere nōn posset, verba prō eō fēcit Tīsagorās, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.)
noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere nōn posset, Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't sleep.
a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus: -
Bellovacī suum numerum nōn complēvērunt quod sē suō nōmine cum Rōmānīs bellum gestūrōs dīcerent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account.
b. Nōn quod, nōn quō (by attraction for nōn eō quod), nōn quia, not that, not because; and nōn quod nōn, nōn quō nōn, nōn quīn, not that ... not; not because ... not; not but that, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive; as, -
id fēcī, nōn quod vōs hanc dēfēnsiōnem dēsīderāre arbitrārer, sed ut omnēs intellegerent, this I did, not because I thought you needed this defense, but that all might perceive;
Crassō commendātiōnem nōn sum pollicitus, nōn quīn eam valitūram apud tē arbitrārer, sed egēre mihi commendātiōne nōn vidēbātur, I did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation.
c. But clauses introduced by nōn quod, nōn quīa take the Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something; as, -
hōc ita sentiō, nōn quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sīc exīstimāre nōs est necesse, this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so.
2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as, -
quae cum īta sint, since this is so;
cum sīs mortālis, quae mortālia sunt, cūrā, since you are mortal, care for what is mortal.
a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially since; as, -
Haeduōs accūsat, praesertim cum eōrum precibus adductus bellum suscēperit, he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties.
3. Quandō (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative; as, -
id omittō, quandō vōbīs ita placet, I pass over that, since you so wish.