Bennett's New Latin Grammar is a book, now in the public domain, written by the famous Charles E. Bennett. I have made this version available online. Of course there may be errors, so use at your own risk.
IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is merely implied by the context; as, -
dēmōnstrābantur mihi praetereā, quae Sōcratēs dē immortālitāte animōrum disseruisset, there were explained to me besides, the arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul (i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);
Paetus omnēs librōs quōs pater suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit, Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left.
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute an essential part of one complex idea; as, -
nēmō avārus adhūc inventus est, cui, quod habēret, esset satis, no miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had;
cum dīversās causās afferrent, dum fōrmam suī quisque et animī et ingeniī redderent, as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent;
quod ego fatear, pudeat? should I be ashamed of a thing which I admit?
2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as, -
mōs est Athēnīs quotannīs in cōntiōne laudārī eōs quī sint in proeliīs interfectī, it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)
325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus: -
As Verbs, -
a) They may be limited by adverbs;
b) They admit an object;
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.
As Nouns or Adjectives, -
a) They are declined;
b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.
THE INFINITIVE.
326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.
NOTE. - The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as, nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses.
A. As Subject.
327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, dēlectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as, -
dulce et decōrum est prō patriā morī, it is sweet and noble to die for one's country;
virōrum est fortium toleranter dolōrem patī, it is the part of brave men to endure pain with patience;
senātuī placuit lēgātōs mittere, the Senate decided (lit. it pleased the Senate) to send envoys.
2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as, -
aliud est īrācundum esse, aliud īrātum, it is one thing to be irascible, another to be angry;
impūne quaelibet facere, id est rēgem esse, to do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king.
a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse ōtiōsō Themistoclī, lit. it was permitted to Themistocles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals.
B. As Object.
328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after -
|
volō, cupiō, mālō,
nōlō, dēbeo, ought; statuō, cōnstituō, decide; audeō, dare; studeō, contendō, strive; parō, prepare (so parātus); incipiō, coepī, īnstituō, begin; pergō, continue; dēsinō, dēsistō, cease; possum, can; cōnor, try; |
cōgitō, meditor, purpose,
intend; neglegō, neglect; vereor, timeō, fear; mātūrō, festīnō, properō, contendō, hasten; assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, accustom myself (so assuētus, īnsuētus, assuēfactus); discō, learn; sciō, know how; soleō, am wont; |
as, -
tū hōs intuērī audēs, do you dare to look on these men?
Dēmosthenēs ad flūctūs maris dēclāmāre solēbat, Demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea.
2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as, -
beātus esse sine virtūte nēmō potest, no one can be happy without virtue;
Catō esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, Cato preferred to be good rather than to seem so.
329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.
A. As Subject.
330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, ūtile est, turpe est, fāma est, spēs est, fās est, nefās est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, cōnstat, praestat, licet, etc.; as, -
nihil in bellō oportet contemnī, nothing ought to be despised in war;
apertum est sibi quemque nātūrā esse cārum, it is manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself.
B. As Object.
331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs:
1. Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the like (Verba Sentiendi et Dēclārandī). This is the regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following: sentiō, audiō, videō, cognōscō; putō, jūdicō, spērō, cōnfīdō; sciō, meminī; dicō, affīrmō, negō (say that ... not), trādō, nārrō, fateor, respondeō, scrībō, prōmittō, glōrior. Also the phrases: certiōrem faciō (inform), memoriā teneō (remember), etc.
Examples: -
Epicūrēī putant cum corporibus simul animōs interīre, the Epicureans think that the soul perishes with the body;
Thalēs dīxit aquam esse initium rērum, Thales said that water was the first principle of the universe;
Dēmocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritus says nothing is everlasting;
spērō eum ventūrum esse, I hope that he will come.
II. With jubeō, order, and vetō, forbid; as, -
Caesar mīlitēs pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge.
a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeō and vetō is put in the Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierī jussit.
III. With patior and sinō, permit, allow; as, -
nūllō sē implicārī negōtiō passus est, he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty.
IV. With volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as, -
nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō, nor do I wish this error to be wrested from me;
eās rēs jactārī nōlēbat, he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed;
tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your worth.
a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is regularly used in accordance with § 328, 1. But exceptions occur, especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as, -
cupiō mē esse clēmentem, I desire to be lenient;
Tīmoleōn māluit sē diligī quam metuī, Timoleon preferred to be loved rather than feared.
b. Volō also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nōlō the Subjunctive alone. (See § 296, 1, a.)
V. With Verbs of emotion (joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially gaudeō, laetor, doleō; aegrē ferō, molestē ferō, graviter ferō, am annoyed, distressed; mīror, queror, indignor; as, -
gaudeō tē salvum advenīre, I rejoice that you arrive safely;
nōn molestē ferunt sē libīdinum vinculīs laxātōs ēsse, they are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion;
mīror tē ad mē nihil scrībere, I wonder that you write me nothing.
a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod- clause as Object. (See § 299.) Thus: -
mīror quod nōn loqueris, I wonder that you do not speak.
VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (§ 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative; as, -
cōgō tē hōc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. tē hōc cōgō);
docuī tē contentum esse, I taught you to be content (cf. tē modestiam docuī, I taught you temperance).
332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the following and of some others: -
a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as, -
mīlitēs pontem facere jussī sunt, the soldiers were ordered to build a bridge;
pōns fierī jussus est, a bridge was ordered built;
mīlitēs castrīs exīre vetitī sunt, the troops were forbidden to go out of the camp;
Sēstius Clōdium accūsāre nōn est situs, Sestius was not allowed to accuse Clodius.
b) videor, I am seen, I seem; as, -
vidētur comperisse, he seems to have discovered.
c) dīcor, putor, exīstimor, jūdicor (in all persons); as, -
dīcitur in Italiam vēnisse, he is said to have come into Italy;
Rōmulus prīmus rēx Rōmānōrum fuisse putātur, Romulus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans.
d) fertur, feruntur, trāditur, trāduntur (only in the third person); as, -
fertur Homērus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been blind;
carmina Archilochī contumēliīs referta esse trāduntur, Archilochus's poems are reported to have been full of abuse.
NOTE. - In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as -
trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, the story goes that Homer was blind.
333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except parātus, assuētus, etc.; see § 328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as, -
contentus dēmōnstrāsse, contented to have proved;
audāx omnia perpetī, bold for enduring everything.
334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indignation, or regret. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause. Examples: -
huncine sōlem tam nigrum surrēxe mihi, to think that to-day's sun rose with such evil omen for me!
sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, to stay whole days at the villa.
335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as, -
interim cottīdiē Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Haedui.
PARTICIPLES.
336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.
2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb. Thus: -
audiō tē loquentem = you ARE speaking and I hear you;
audiēbam tē loquentem = you WERE speaking and I heard you;
audiam tē loquentem = you WILL BE speaking and I shall hear you.
a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force; as, -
assurgentem rēgem resupīnat, as the king was trying to rise, he threw him down.
3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of the verb. Thus: -
locūtus taceō = I HAVE spoken and am silent;
locūtus tacui = I HAD spoken and then was silent;
locūtus tacēbō = I SHALL speak and then shall be silent.
4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.
5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; viz. arbitrātus, ausus, ratus, gāvīsus, solitus, ūsus, cōnfīsus, diffīsus, secūtus, veritus.
337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.
1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are: -
glōria est cōnsentiēns laus bonōrum, glory is the unanimous praise of the good;
Conōn mūrōs ā Lysandrō dīrutōs reficit, Conon restored the walls destroyed by Lysander.
2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote: -
a) Time; as, -
omne malum nāscēns facile opprimitur, every evil is easily crushed at birth.
b) A Condition; as, -
mente ūtī nōn possumus cibō et pōtiōne complētī, if gorged with food and drink, we cannot use our intellects.
c) Manner; as, -
Solōn senēscere sē dīcēbat multa in diēs addiscentem, Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily.
d) Means; as, -
sōl oriēns diem cōnficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the day.
e) Opposition ('though'); as, -
mendācī hominī nē vērum quidem dīcentī crēdimus, we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth.
f) Cause; as, -
perfidiam veritus ad suōs recessit, since he feared treachery, he returned to his own troops.
3. Videō and audiō, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the Predicate use; as, -
videō tē fugientem, I see you fleeing.
a. So frequently faciō, fingō, indūcō, etc.; as, -
eīs Catōnem respondentem facimus, we represent Cato replying to them;
Homērus Laėrtem colentem agrum facit, Homer represents Laėrtes tilling the field.
4. The Future Active Participle (except futūrus) is regularly confined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose; as, -
vēnērunt castra oppugnātūrī, they came to assault the camp.
5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coördinate clause; as, -
urbem captam dīruit, he captured and destroyed the city (lit. he destroyed the city captured).
6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as, -
post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city;
Quīnctius dēfēnsus, the defense of Quinctius;
quibus animus occupātus, the preoccupation of the mind with which.
7. Habeō sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative; as, -
equitātus quem coāctum habēbat, the cavalry which he had collected.
8. The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc. Like other Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.
a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus: -
liber legendus, a book worth reading;
lēgēs observandae, laws deserving of observance.
b) More frequently as Predicate.
1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as, -
veniendum est, it is necessary to come;
oblīvīscendum est offēnsārum, one must forget injuries;
numquam prōditōrī crēdendum est, you must never trust a traitor;
suō cuique ūtendum est jūdiciō, every man must use his own judgment.
2) After cūrō, provide for; dō, trādō, give over; relinquō, leave; concēdō, hand over, and some other verbs, instead of an object clause, or to denote purpose; as, -
Caesar pontem in Ararī faciendum cūrāvit, Caesar provided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar;
imperātor urbem mīlitibus dīripiendam concessit, the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder.
9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, 1.
THE GERUND.
338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows: -
1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used -
a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see §§ 200, 202); as, -
cupiditās dominandī, desire of ruling;
ars scrībendī, the art of writing.
b) With Adjectives; as, -
cupidus audiendī, desirous of hearing.
c) With causā, grātiā; as, -
discendī causā, for the sake of learning.
2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used -
a) With Adjectives; as, -
aqua ūtilis est bibendō, water is useful for drinking.
b) With Verbs (rarely); as, -
adfuī scrībendō, I was present at the writing.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as, -
homō ad agendum nātus est, man is born for action.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used -
a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see §§ 218, 219); as, -
mēns discendō alitur et cōgitandō, the mind is nourished by learning and reflection.
Themistoclēs maritimōs praedōnēs cōnsectandō mare tūtum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates.
b) After the prepositions ā, dē, ex, in; as, -
summa voluptās ex discendō capitur, the keenest pleasure is derived from learning;
multa dē bene beātēque vīvendō ā Platōne disputāta sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily.
5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.
339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction may be, and very often is, used. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus: -
| GERUND CONSTRUCTION. | GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. |
| cupidus urbem videndī, desirous of seeing the city. | cupidus urbis videndae; |
| dēlector ōrātōrēs legendō, I am charmed with reading the orators. | dēlector ōrātōribus legendīs |
2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as, -
locus castrīs mūniendīs aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp;
ad pācem petendam vēnērunt, they came to ask peace;
multum temporis cōnsūmō in legendīs poētīs, I spend much time in reading the poets.
3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly -
philosophī cupidī sunt vērum invēstīgandī, philosophers are eager for discovering truth (rarely vērī invēstīgandī);
studium plūra cognōscendī, a desire of knowing more (not plūrium cognōscendōrum).
4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction; but ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive) regularly admit it; as, -
hostēs in spem potiundōrum castrōrum vēnerant, the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp.
5. The Genitives meī, tuī, suī, nostrī, vestrī, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively. Thus: -
mulier suī servandī causā aufūgit, the woman fled for the sake of saving herself;
lēgātī in castra vēnērunt suī pūrgandī causā, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves.
So nostrī servandī causā, for the sake of saving ourselves.
6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote purpose; as, -
quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvertundae, which he undertook for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty.
7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions which have the character of formulas; as, -
decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, decemvirs for codifying the laws;
quīndecimvirī sacrīs faciundīs, quindecimvirs for performing the sacrifices.
THE SUPINE.
340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express purpose; as, -
lēgātī ad Caesarem grātulātum convēnērunt, envoys came to Caesar to congratulate him.
a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as, -
pācem petītum ōrātōrēs Rōmam mittunt, they send envoys to Rome to ask for peace.
b. Note the phrase: -
dō (collocō) fīliam nūptum, I give my daughter in marriage.
2. The Supine in -ū is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difficilis, incrēdibilis, jūcundus, optimus, etc.; also with fās est, nefās est, opus est; as, -
haec rēs est facilis cognitū, this thing is easy to learn;
hōc est optimum factū, this is best to do.
a. Only a few Supines in -ū are in common use, chiefly audītū, cognitū, dictū, factū, vīsū.
b. The Supine in -ū never takes an Object.