Bennett's New Latin Grammar is a book, now in the public domain, written by the famous Charles E. Bennett. I have made this version available online. Of course there may be errors, so use at your own risk.
287. 1. Postquam (posteāquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum prīmum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single past act regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as, -
Epamīnōndās postquam audīvit vīcisse Boeōtiōs, 'Satis' inquit 'vīxī,' Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I have lived enough;'
id ut audīvit, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, when he heard this, he moved to Corcyra;
Caesar cum prīmum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army;
ubi dē Caesaris adventū certiōrēs factī sunt, lēgātōs ad eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him.
a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this construction.
2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3; 302, 3); as, -
ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumiās statim coniciēbātur, whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry;
hostēs, ubi aliquōs ēgredientēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur, whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them.
a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act ('Indefinite Frequency'); as, -
id ubi dīxisset hastam mittēbat, whenever he had said that, he hurled a spear.
3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, trienniō postquam. Thus: -
quīnque post diēbus quam Lūcā discesserat, ad Sardiniam vēnit five days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia;
postquam occupātae Syrācūsae erant, profectus est Carthāginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage.
4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote a continued state; as, -
postquam Rōmam adventābant, senātus cōnsultus est, after they were on the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted;
postquam strūctī utrimque stābant, after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position.
5. Rarely postquam, posteāquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as, -
posteāquam sūmptuōsa fieri fūnera coepissent, lēge sublāta sunt, after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law.
A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.
288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes, -
A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs.
B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs.
Examples: -
INDICATIVE.
an tum erās cōnsul, cum in Palātiō mea domus ārdēbat, or were you consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?
crēdō tum cum Sicilia flōrēbat opibus et cōpiīs magna artificia fuisse in eā īnsulā, I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that island;
eō tempore pāruit cum pārēre necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey;
illō diē, cum est lāta lēx dē mē, on that day when the law concerning me was passed.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Lysander cum vellet Lycūrgī lēgēs commūtāre, prohibitus est, when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented;
Pythagorās cum in geōmetriā quiddam novī invēnisset, Mūsīs bovem immolāsse dīcitur, when Pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses.
a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eō diē, eō annō, eō tempore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegrē, nōndum; as, -
jam Gallī ex oppidō fugere apparābant, cum mātrēs familiae repente prōcurrērunt, the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the matrons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee);
Trēvirī Labiēnum adorīrī parābant, cum duās legiōnēs vēnisse cognōscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they learned that two legions had arrived.
3. To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2; 302, 3); as, -
cum ād aliquod oppidum vēnerat, eādem lectīcā ad cubiculum dēferēbātur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the same litter to his room;
cum equitātus noster sē in agrōs ējēcerat, essedāriōs ex silvīs ēmittēbat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods.
a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as, -
saepe cum aliquem vidēret minus bene vestītum, suum amiculum dedit, often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his own mantle;
cum prōcucurrissent, Numidae effugiēbant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidians ran away.
This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.
B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative; as, -
tum tua rēs agitur, pariēs cum proximus ārdet, your own interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is burning;
cum vidēbis, tum sciēs, when you see, then you will know.
a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring action; as, -
stabilitās amīcitiae cōnfirmārī potest, cum hominēs cupīdinibus imperābunt, firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires.
C. OTHER USES OF Cum.
290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another; as, -
cum tacent clāmant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are silent, they shout).
2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean both ... and, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive; as, -
cum tē semper dīlēxerim, tum tuīs factīs incēnsus sum, while I have always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct.
A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.
291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact.
1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as, -
prius respondēs quam rogō, you answer before I ask;
nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit, I will say nothing in opposition, before he speaks.
2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as, -
nōn prius jugulandī fīnis fuit, quam Sulla omnēs suōs dīvitiīs explēvit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth.
B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated.
1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote -
a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as, -
priusquam dīmicārent, foedus īctum est, i.e. in anticipation of the fight, a treaty was struck.
By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as, -
tempestās minātur antequam surgat, the tempest threatens before it rises.
b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as, -
priusquam tēlum adicī posset, omnis aciēs terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.
c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as, -
animum omittunt priusquam locō dēmigrent, they die rather than quit their post.
2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as, -
sōl antequam sē abderet fugientem vīdit Antōnium, the sun before it set saw Antony fleeing.
293. 1. Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as, -
Alexander, dum inter prīmōrēs pugnat, sagittā ictus est, Alexander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow;
dum haec geruntur, in fīnēs Venellōrum pervēnit, while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli.
II. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative; as, -
dum anima est, spēs est, as long as there is life, there is hope;
Lacedaemoniōrum gēns fortis fuit, dum Lycūrgī lēgēs vigēbant, the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force;
Catō, quoad vīxit, virtūtum laude crēvit, Cato, at long as he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues.
III. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, until, take: -
1. The Indicative, to denote an actual event; as, -
dōnec rediit, fuit silentium, there was silence till he came;
ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renūntiātum est Boeōtiōs vīcisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had conquered.
a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and dōnec in this sense often take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as, -
trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant dōnec timor quiētem fēcisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet.
2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expectancy; as, -
exspectāvit Caesar dum nāvēs convenīrent, Caesar waited for the ships to assemble;
dum litterae veniant, morābor, I shall wait for the letter to come.
294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.
295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the following classes of verbs: -
1. With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, persuade, induce,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as, -
postulō ut fīat, I demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive fīat, let it be done!);
ōrat, nē abeās, he begs that you will not go away;
mīlitēs cohortātus est ut hostium impetum sustinērent, he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy;
Helvētiīs persuāsit ut exīrent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march forth.
a. Jubeō, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.
2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow,[52] etc. (conjunction ut); as, -
huic concēdō ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!);
cōnsulī permissum est ut duās legiōnēs scrīberet, the consul was permitted to enroll two legions.
3. With verbs of hindering, preventing,[53] etc. (conjunctions nē, quōminus, quīn); as, -
nē lūstrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of nē lūstrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.);
prohibuit quōminus in ūnum coīrent, he prevented them from coming together;
nec quīn ērumperet, prohibērī poterat, nor could he be prevented from rushing forth.
a. Quīn is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not necessarily used even then.
4. With verbs of deciding, resolving,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as, -
cōnstitueram ut prīdiē Īdūs Aquīnī manērem, I had decided to remain at Aquinum on the 12th;
dēcrēvit senātus ut Opīmius vidēret, the Senate decreed that Opimius should see to it;
convēnit ut ūnīs castrīs miscērentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp.
5. With verbs of striving,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as, -
fac ut eum exōrēs, see to it that you prevail upon him!
cūrā ut vir sīs, see to it that you are a man!
labōrābat ut reliquās cīvitātēs adjungeret, he was striving to join the remaining states to him.
a. Cōnor, try, always takes the Infinitive.
NOTE. - Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry.
6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur, licet, oportet; as, -
sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to show;
licet redeās, you may return;
oportet loquāmur, we must speak.
On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.
7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nūlla causa est cūr, quīn; nōn est cūr, etc.; nihil est cūr, etc.; as, -
nūlla causa est cūr timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative: why should I fear? There's no reason);
nihil est quīn dīcam, there is no reason why I should not say.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6. Other examples are: -
eōs moneō dēsinant, I warn them to stop;
huic imperat adeat cīvitātēs, he orders him to visit the states.
296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur: -
1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupiō, optō, volō, mālō (conjunctions ut, nē, ut nē); as, -
optō ut in hōc jūdiciō nēmō improbus reperiātur, I hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiātur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiātur, may no bad man be found!);
cupiō nē veniat, I desire that he may not come.
a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scrībās, I wish you would write; vellem scrīpsisset, I wish he had written.
2. With expressions of fearing (timeō, metuō, vereor, etc.). Here nē means that, lest, and ut means that not; as, -
timeō nē veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: may he not come! I'm afraid [he will]);
timeō ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally: may he come! I'm afraid [he won't]).
a. Nē nōn sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause; as, -
nōn vereor ne hōc nōn fīat, I am not afraid that this will not happen;
vereor nē exercitum fīrmum habēre nōn possit, I fear that he is unable (nōn possit) to have a strong army.
297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut nōn) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words: -
1. As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially faciō, efficiō, cōnficiō). Thus: -
gravitās morbī facit ut medicīnā egeāmus, the severity of disease makes us need medicine.
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur, accidit, ēvenit, contingit, accēdit, fierī potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus: -
ex quō efficitur, ut voluptās nōn sit summum bonum, from which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good;
ita fit, ut nēmō esse possit beātus, thus it happens that no one can be happy;
accēdēbat ut nāvēs deessent, another thing was the lack of ships (lit. it was added that ships were lacking).
3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jūs est, mōs est, cōnsuētūdō est; also after neuter pronouns, hōc, illud, etc. Thus: -
est mōs hominum ut nōlint eundem plūribus rēbus excellere, it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things.
298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quīn (used sometimes as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after nōn dubitō, I do not doubt; quis dubitat, who doubts?; nōn (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples: -
quis dubitat quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint, who doubts that in virtue there are riches?
nōn dubium erat quīn ventūrus esset, there was no doubt that he was about to come.
a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quīn-clause after nōn dubitō; as, -
nōn dubitāmus inventōs esse, we do not doubt that men were found
b. Nōn dubitō, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive, though sometimes by a quīn-clause.
299. 1. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substantive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially -
a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hōc, id, illud, illa, ex eō, inde, etc. Thus: -
illud est admīrātiōne dignum, quod captīvōs retinendōs cēnsuit, this is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept;
hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod colloquimur inter nōs, in this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other.
b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, mīror, etc.; as, -
bene mihi ēvenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well for me that I am sent to death;
bene fēcistī quod mānsistī, you did well in remaining.
2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus: -
quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcō, id meī mūniendī causā faciō, as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;
quod mē Agamemnona aemulārī putās, falleris, as regards your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken.
300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced -
a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as, -
dīc mihi ubi fuerīs, quid fēcerīs, tell me where you were, what you did;
oculīs jūdicārī nōn potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows;
bis bīna quot essent, nesciēbat, he did not know how many two times two were.
NOTE. - Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following: -
effugere nēmō id potest quod futūrum est, no one can escape what is destined to come to pass; but saepe autem ne ūtile quidem est scīre quid futūrum sit, but often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass.
b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as, -
Epamīnōndās quaesīvit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe;
disputātur num interīre virtūs in homine possit, the question is raised whether virtue can die in a man;
ex Sōcrate quaesītum est nōnne Archelāum beātum putāret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy.
NOTE. - Nōnne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaerō, as in the last example above.
2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse; as, -
nesciō quid faciam, I do not know what to do. (Direct: quid faciam, what shall I do!)
3. After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspectō, cōnor, experior, temptō) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by sī; as, -
cōnantur sī perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break through.
a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as, -
pergit ad proximam spēluncam sī forte eō vēstīgia ferrent, he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither.
4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4); viz.; -
utrum ... an;
-ne ... an;
- - ... an;
- - ... ne.
Examples: -
|
quaerō utrum vērum an falsum sit, quaerō vērumne an falsum sit, quaerō vērum an falsum sit, quaerō vērum falsumne sit, |
} } I ask whether it } is true or false? } |
a. 'Or not' in the second member of the double question is ordinarily expressed by necne, less frequently by an nōn; as, -
dī utrum sint necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods or not.
5. Haud sciō an, nesciō an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: I am inclined to think, probably, perhaps; as, -
haud sciō an ita sit, I am inclined to think this is so.
6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in indirect Questions.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or condition), usually introduced by sī, nisi, or sīn, and the Apodosis (or conclusion). There are the following types of Conditional Sentences: -
302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used; as, -
sī hōc crēdis, errās, if you believe this, you are mistaken;
nātūram sī sequēmur, numquam aberrābimus, if we follow Nature, we shall never go astray;
sī hōc dīxistī, errāstī, if you said this, you were in error.
2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative; as, -
memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās, memory is impaired unless you exercise it.
3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2; 288, 3); as, -
sī quis equitum dēciderat, peditēs circumsistēbant, if any one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him.
a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated action; as, -
sī dīcendō quis diem eximeret, if (ever) anybody consumed a day in pleading; sī quandō adsidēret, if ever he sat by.
4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as, -
sī hōc crēditis, tacēte, if you believe this, be silent;
sī hōc crēdimus, taceāmus, if we believe this, let us keep silent.
303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as, -
sī hōc dīcās, errēs, or sī hōc dīxerīs, errāverīs, if you should say this, you would be mistaken;
sī velim Hannibalis proelia omnia dēscrībere, diēs mē dēficiat, if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail me;
mentiar, sī negem, I should lie, if I should deny it;
haec sī tēcum patria loquātur, nōnne impetrāre dēbeat, if your country should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her request?
a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type is of the Potential variety.
b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a result more positively; as, -
aliter sī faciat, nūllam habet auctōritātem, if he should do otherwise, he has no authority.
304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past; as, -
sī amīcī meī adessent, opis nōn indigērem, if my friends were here, I should not lack assistance;
sī hōc dīxissēs, errāssēs, if you had said this, you would have erred;
sapientia nōn expeterētur, sī nihil efficeret, philosophy would not be desired, if it accomplished nothing;
cōnsilium, ratiō, sententia nisi essent in senibus, nōn summum cōnsilium majōrēs nostrī appellāssent senātum, unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate.
2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote a continued act, or a state of things still existing; as, -
Laelius, Fūrius, Catō sī nihil litterīs adjuvārentur, numquam sē ad eārum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been (constantly) helped by them;
num igitur sī ad centēsimum annum vīxisset, senectūtis eum suae paenitēret, if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?
3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz. -
a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or necessity; as, -
nisi fēlīcitās in sōcordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuērunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke;
NOTE. - In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood (and they would have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.
eum patris locō colere dēbēbās, sī ūlla in tē pietās esset, you ought to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion.
b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as, -
sī Sēstius occīsus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūrī, if Sestius had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms?
sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, moriendum omnibus fuit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die.
305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with sī, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as, -
aliōquī haec nōn scrīberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were otherwise) these things would not be written;
nōn potestis, voluptāte omnia dīrigentēs, retinēre virtūtem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to pleasure.
2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis. Thus: -
crās petitō, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (lit. ask to-morrow, etc.);
haec reputent, vidēbunt, if they consider this, they will see (lit. let them consider, etc.);
rogēs Zēnōnem, respondeat, if you should ask Zeno, he would answer.
306. 1. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; sī nōn negatives a single word; as, -
ferreus essem, nisi tē amārem, I should be hard-hearted unless I loved you; but -
ferreus essem, sī tē nōn amārem, I should be hard-hearted if I did NOT love you.
In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, in the second, the notion of loving.
2. Sī nōn (sī minus) is regularly employed: -
a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certē follows; as, -
dolōrem sī nōn potuerō frangere, tamen occultābō, if I cannot crush my sorrow, yet I will hide it.
b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as, -
sī fēceris, magnam habēbō grātiam; sī nōn fēceris, ignōscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon you.
a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin minus is admissible; as, -
hōc sī assecūtus sum, gaudeō; sī minus, mē cōnsōlor, if I have attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself.
3. Sīn. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sīn; as, -
hunc mihi timōrem ēripe; sī vērus est, nē opprimar, sīn falsus, ut timēre dēsinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to fear.
4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (nōn, nēmō, nihil); as, -
nihil cōgitāvit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder.
a. Nōn and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.
5. Nisi forte, nisi vērō, nisi sī, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as, -
nisi vērō, quia perfecta rēs nōn est, nōn vidētur pūnienda, unless indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit punishment.
307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles, ac sī, ut sī, quasi, quam sī, tamquam sī, velut sī, or simply by velut or tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see § 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples: -
tantus patrēs metus cēpit, velat sī jam ad portās hostis esset, as great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates;
sed quid ego hīs testibus ūtor quasi rēs dubia aut obscūra sit, but why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure;
serviam tibi tam quasi ēmerīs mē argentō, I will serve you as though you had bought me for money.
2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.
308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of granted that, etc.; (see § 278) as, -
sit fūr, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperātor, granted that he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander;
haec sint falsa, granted that this is false;
nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est, granted that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil.
309. Clauses introduced by quamvīs, quamquam, etsī, tametsī, cum, although, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede anything, but rather state that something is true in spite of something else. They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows: -
1. Quamvīs, however much, although, does not introduce a statement of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as, -
hominēs quamvīs in turbidīs rēbus sint, tamen interdum animīs relaxantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times they relax their energies;
nōn est potestās opitulandī reī pūblicae quamvīs ea premātur perīculīs, there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by dangers.
2. Quamquam, etsī, tametsī, although, introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as, -
quamquam omnis virtūs nōs allicit, tamen jūstitia id maximē efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;
Caesar, etsī nōndum cōnsilium hostium cognōverat, tamen id quod accidit suspicābātur, Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred.
a. Etsī, although, must be distinguished from etsī, even if. The latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible for sī. (See §§ 302-304.)
3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as, -
Atticus honōrēs nōn petiit, cum eī patērent, Atticus did not seek honors, though they were open to him.
4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 295, 6) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as, -
licet omnēs terrōrēs impendeant, succurram, though all terrors hang over me, (yet) I will lend aid.
5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal clauses; as, -
quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak?
6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Subjunctive, while quamvīs is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus: -
quamquam movērētur hīs vōcibus, although he was moved by these words;
quamvīs multī opīnārentur, though many thought;
quamvīs īnfēstō animō pervēnerās, though you had come with hostile intent.
310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative nē) and have two distinct uses: -
I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as, -
multī honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cōnsequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power (if only they may attain);
omnia postposuī, dum praeceptīs patris pārērem, I made everything else secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father;
nīl obstat tibi, dum nē sit dītior alter, nothing hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you.
II. They are used to express a proviso ('provided that'); as, -
ōderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear;
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor;
nūbant, dum nē dōs fiat comes, let them marry, provided no dowry goes with it.
311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.
312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -oumque; as, -
quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dōna ferentēs, whatever it is, I fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts;
quidquid oritur, quālecumque est, causam ā nātūrā habet, whatever comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in Nature.
2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in §§ 302-304; as, -
quī hōc dīcit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type);
quī hōc dīcat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Second Type);
quī hōc dīxisset, errāsset, the man who had said this would have been mistaken.
313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse (Ōrātiō Recta); as, Caesar said, 'The die is cast.' When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse (Ōrātiō Oblīqua); as, Caesar said that the die was cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious.
a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect Discourse, see § 331.
MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive; as, -
Rēgulus dīxit quam diū jūre jūrandō hostium tenērētur nōn esse sē senātōrem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct: quam diū teneor nōn sum senātor.)
2. The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context; as, -
tum Rōmulus lēgātōs circā vīcīnās gentēs mīsit quī societātem cōnūbiumque peterent: urbēs quoque, ut cētera, ex īnfimō nāscī, then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a modest beginning.
3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as, -
nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem, quod est oppidum maximum Sēquanōrum contendere, it was reported that Ariovistus was hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani.
4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where quī is equivalent to et hīc, nam hīc, etc.; as, -
dīxit urbem Athēniēnsium prōpugnāculum oppositum esse barbarīs, apud quam jam bis classēs rēgiās fēcisse naufragium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster.
5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context; as, -
cum id nescīre Māgō dīceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for sē nescīre).
315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunctive; as, -
Ariovistus Caesarī respondit: sē prius in Galliam vēnisse quam populum Rōmānum. Quid sibi vellet? Cūr in suās possessiōnēs venīret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his domain? (Direct: quid tibi vīs? cūr in meās possessiōnēs venīs?)
2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus : -
quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the Indirect.
3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in mood in the Indirect: as, -
quid faceret, what was he to do? (Direct: quid faciat?)
316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as, -
mīlitēs certiōrēs fēcit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct: intermittite.)
a. The negative in such sentences is nē; as, -
nē suae virtūtī tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own valor!
TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270.
a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus: -
sciō tē haec ēgisse may mean -
I know you were doing this.(Direct: haec agēbās.)
I know you did this. (Direct: haec ēgistī.)
I know you had done this. (Direct: haec ēgerās.)
318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying is Principal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense (Repraesentātiō); as, -
Caesar respondit, sī obsidēs dentur, sēsē pācem esse factūrum, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace.
a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317, a).
B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses.
Examples: -
| DIRECT. | INDIRECT. |
| sī hōc crēdis, errās, |
dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē
errāre; dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāre. |
| sī hōc crēdēs, errābis, |
dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē
errātūrum esse; dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum esse. |
| sī hōc crēdideris, errābis, |
dīcō, sī hōc crēderīs, tē
errātūrum esse; dīxī, sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē errātūrum esse. |
| sī hōc crēdēbās, errāvistī, |
dīcō, sī hōc crēderēs, tē
errāvisse; dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse. |
a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense.
320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.
B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.
Examples: -
| sī hōc crēdās, errēs, |
dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē
errātūrum esse; dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum esse; |
321. A. THE APODOSIS.
1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future Infinitive.
a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question the correctness of this passage.
2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes: -
a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -ūrus fuisse.
b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futūrum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive.
B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always remains unchanged.
Examples: -
| sī hōc crēderēs, errārēs, | dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum esse; |
| sī hōc crēdidissēs, errāvissēs, | dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē errātūrum fuisse; |
| sī hōc dīxissēs, pūnītus essēs. | dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc dīxissēs, futūrum fuisse ut pūnīrēris. |
322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quīn-clause (after nōn dubitō, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -ūrus fuerim; as, -
ita territī sunt, ut arma trāditūrī fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subitō advēnisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived;
nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs,[57] I do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake.
a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as, -
nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, vituperātus essēs, I do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed.
b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional sentence of the Third Type, -ūrus fuerim (rarely -ūrus fuissem) is used; as, -
quaerō, num, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs (or fuissēs).
c. Potuī, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as, -
concursū tōtīus civitātis dēfēnsī sunt, ut frīgidissimōs quoque ōrātōrēs populī studia excitāre potuerint, they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators.
[51] Especially: moneō, admoneō; rogō, ōrō, petō, postulō, precor, flāgitō; mandō, imperō, praecipiō; suādeō, hortor, cohortor; persuādeō, impellō.
[52] Especially: permittō, concēdō, nōn patior.
[53] Especially: prohibeō, impediō, dēterreō.
[54] Especially: cōnstituō, dēcernō, cēnseō, placuit, convenit, pacīscor.
[55] Especially: labōrō, dō operam, id agō, contendō, impetrō.
[56] Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as cōnsiderā quam variae sint hominum cupīdinēs, consider how varied are the desires of men. (Direct: quam variae sunt hominum cupīdinēs!)
[57] Trāditūri fuerint and errātūrus fuerīs are to be regarded as representing trāditūri fuērunt and errātūrus fuistī of Direct Discourse. (See § 304, 3, b.)